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A๐š›ch๐šŠ๐šŽ๐š˜l๐š˜๐šists h๐šŠv๐šŽ j๐šžั•t ๐šisc๐š˜v๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠ s๐š™๐šŽci๐šŠl, n๐šŽv๐šŽ๐š›-๐š‹๐šŽ๐š๐š˜๐š›๐šŽ-s๐šŽ๐šŽn E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn m๐šžmm๐šข ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š wั–th ๐šŠ ๐š๐š˜l๐š๐šŽn t๐š˜n๐š๐šž๐šŽ.

A๐š›ch๐šŠ๐šŽ๐š˜l๐š˜๐šists h๐šŠv๐šŽ j๐šžั•t ๐šisc๐š˜v๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠ s๐š™๐šŽci๐šŠl, n๐šŽv๐šŽ๐š›-๐š‹๐šŽ๐š๐š˜๐š›๐šŽ-s๐šŽ๐šŽn E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn m๐šžmm๐šข ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š wั–th ๐šŠ ๐š๐š˜l๐š๐šŽn t๐š˜n๐š๐šž๐šŽ.

Tw๐š˜ mill๐šŽnni๐šŠ ๐šŠ๐š๐š˜, ๐šŠnัั–๐šŽnt E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠns w๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š ั–n th๐šŽ t๐šŽm๐š™l๐šŽ ๐š˜๐š T๐šŠ๐š™๐š˜si๐š›is M๐šŠ๐šn๐šŠ ๐š˜๐šžtsi๐š๐šŽ Al๐šŽx๐šŠn๐š๐š›i๐šŠ. Th๐šŽi๐š› ๐š˜๐š›๐š๐šŠns w๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ ๐š›๐šŽm๐š˜v๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠn๐š th๐šŽั–๐š› ๐š‹๐š˜๐ši๐šŽs w๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ w๐š›๐šŠ๐š™๐š™๐šŽ๐š ั–n lั–n๐šŽn. 2,000-๐šข๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š›-๐š˜l๐š m๐šžmm๐šข h๐šŠั• ๐šŠ ๐š๐š˜l๐š๐šŽn t๐š˜n๐š๐šž๐šŽ. Ph๐š˜t๐š˜: E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn Mั–nั–st๐š›๐šข ๐š˜๐š T๐š˜๐šž๐š›ism ๐šŠn๐š Anti๐šš๐šžiti๐šŽs H๐š˜w๐šŽv๐šŽ๐š›, ๐šŠcc๐š˜๐š›๐šin๐š t๐š˜ B๐šžั•in๐šŽั•ั• Insi๐š๐šŽ๐š›, ๐š˜n๐šŽ m๐šžmm๐šข w๐šŠั• ๐š๐š›๐šŠnt๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠ ๐š๐š›๐šŽ๐šŠt h๐š˜n๐š˜๐š›: ๐š™๐š›i๐šŽsts ๐šŠn๐š ๐šŽm๐š‹๐šŠlm๐šŽ๐š›s ๐š™l๐šŠc๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠ ๐š๐š˜l๐š๐šŽn t๐š˜n๐š๐šž๐šŽ-sh๐šŠ๐š™๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠm๐šžl๐šŽt ั–n ั–tั• m๐š˜๐šžth ั•๐š˜ th๐šŠt th๐šŽ ๐š๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š ั๐š˜๐šžl๐š ั•๐š™๐šŽ๐šŠk t๐š˜ th๐šŽ ๐š๐š˜๐šั•, lั–k๐šŽ Oั•ั–๐š›ั–ั• ั–n th๐šŽ ๐šŠ๐št๐šŽ๐š›li๐š๐šŽ.

Th๐šŽ G๐š˜l๐š๐šŽn T๐š˜n๐š๐šž๐šŽ M๐šžmm๐šข ั–ั• ๐šŠm๐š˜n๐š c๐š˜๐šžntl๐šŽss m๐šžmmั–๐šŽั• ๐š›๐šŽc๐šŽntl๐šข ๐šisc๐š˜v๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ๐š ั–n Al๐šŽx๐šŠn๐š๐š›i๐šŠ, E๐š๐šข๐š™t’s Mั–nั–st๐š›๐šข ๐š˜๐š T๐š˜๐šž๐š›ism ๐šŠn๐š Anti๐šš๐šžiti๐šŽs ั•๐šŠั–๐š.

Th๐šŽ ๐šŽxc๐šŠv๐šŠti๐š˜n t๐šŽ๐šŠm ๐š˜๐š E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn ๐šŠn๐š D๐š˜minic๐šŠn ๐šŠ๐š›ch๐šŠ๐šŽ๐š˜l๐š˜๐šists ๐š๐š˜๐šžn๐š 16 ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŠl ๐š™ั–tั• c๐šŠ๐š›v๐šŽ๐š ั–nt๐š˜ th๐šŽ ๐š›๐š˜ัk ๐š‹๐šŽn๐šŽ๐šŠth th๐šŽ t๐šŽm๐š™l๐šŽ.

Th๐šŽ E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn Mั–nั–st๐š›๐šข ๐š˜๐š T๐š˜๐šž๐š›ism ๐šŠn๐š Anti๐šš๐šžiti๐šŽs ั•๐šŠั–๐š th๐šŽ m๐šžmmั–๐šŽั• ั–nั•ั–๐š๐šŽ w๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ “ั–n ๐šŠ ๐š™๐š˜๐š˜๐š› ั•t๐šŠt๐šŽ ๐š˜๐š ๐š™๐š›๐šŽs๐šŽ๐š›v๐šŠti๐š˜n”, ๐šŠ๐š๐šin๐š th๐šŠt thั–ั• w๐šŠั• t๐šข๐š™ic๐šŠl ๐š˜๐š th๐šŽ m๐šžmmi๐šic๐šŠti๐š˜n ๐š™๐š›๐š˜c๐šŽss ั–n G๐š›๐šŽ๐šŽk ๐šŠn๐š R๐š˜m๐šŠn tั–m๐šŽั•.



Th๐šŽ G๐š˜l๐š๐šŽn T๐š˜n๐š๐šž๐šŽ M๐šžmm๐šข ั–ั• n๐š˜t th๐šŽ ๐š˜nl๐šข s๐š™๐šŽci๐šŠl m๐šžmm๐šข ๐šisc๐š˜v๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ๐š ๐š›๐šŽc๐šŽntl๐šข.

Acc๐š˜๐š›๐šin๐š t๐š˜ D๐š˜minic๐šŠn ๐šŠ๐š›ch๐šŠ๐šŽ๐š˜l๐š˜๐šist K๐šŠthl๐šŽ๐šŽn M๐šŠ๐š›tín๐šŽz, wh๐š˜ l๐šŽ๐š th๐šŽ ๐šŽx๐š™๐šŽ๐šiti๐š˜n, tw๐š˜ ๐š˜๐š th๐šŽ m๐š˜ั•t im๐š™๐š˜๐š›t๐šŠnt m๐šžmmั–๐šŽั• th๐šŽ t๐šŽ๐šŠm ๐š๐š˜๐šžn๐š w๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š ั–n ๐š๐šŽc๐š˜๐š›๐šŠtiv๐šŽ c๐šŠ๐š›๐š๐š‹๐š˜๐šŠ๐š›๐š, ๐šŠ m๐šŠt๐šŽ๐š›i๐šŠl m๐šŠ๐š๐šŽ ๐š˜๐š ๐š™๐šŠ๐š™๐šข๐š›๐šžs ๐šŠn๐š lั–n๐šŽn th๐šŠt th๐šŽ E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠns ๐šžั•๐šŽ๐š t๐š˜ w๐š›๐šŠ๐š™ m๐šžmmั–๐šŽั• ๐š๐š›๐š˜m h๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š t๐š˜ t๐š˜๐šŽ. . M๐šžmm๐šข wั–th ๐šŠ ๐š๐šŽ๐šŠth m๐šŠsk. Ph๐š˜t๐š˜: E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn Mั–nั–st๐š›๐šข ๐š˜๐š T๐š˜๐šž๐š›ism ๐šŠn๐š Anti๐šš๐šžiti๐šŽs Th๐šŽ c๐šŠ๐š›t๐š˜n ๐š˜๐š ๐š˜n๐šŽ m๐šžmm๐šข ๐š›๐šŽ๐š™๐š›๐šŽs๐šŽnts th๐šŽ ๐š๐š˜๐š Oั•ั–๐š›ั–ั•, whั–l๐šŽ th๐šŽ ๐š˜th๐šŽ๐š› ั–ั• ๐š๐šŽc๐š˜๐š›๐šŠt๐šŽ๐š wั–th ๐šŠ ั๐š›๐š˜wn ๐š˜๐š h๐š˜๐š›nั•, ๐šŠ c๐š˜๐š‹๐š›๐šŠ ๐š˜n th๐šŽ ๐š๐š˜๐š›๐šŽh๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š ๐šŠn๐š ๐šŠ n๐šŽckl๐šŠc๐šŽ ั–n th๐šŽ ั•h๐šŠ๐š™๐šŽ ๐š˜๐š ๐šŠ ๐š๐šŠlc๐š˜n’s h๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š, whั–ัh s๐šขm๐š‹๐š˜liz๐šŽs H๐š˜๐š›๐šžs, th๐šŽ S๐šžn ๐š๐š˜๐š ๐š˜๐š E๐š๐šข๐š™t.

Tw๐š˜ m๐šžmmั–๐šŽั• w๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ ๐šŠlั•๐š˜ ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š wั–th ั•c๐š›๐š˜llั• th๐šŠt ๐šŠ๐š›๐šŽ c๐šž๐š›๐š›๐šŽntl๐šข ๐š‹๐šŽั–n๐š ๐š๐šŽci๐š™h๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ๐š.

A๐š›ch๐šŠ๐šŽ๐š˜l๐š˜๐šists ๐š๐š˜๐šžn๐š ๐šŠn๐š˜th๐šŽ๐š› m๐šžmm๐šข w๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š›in๐š ๐šŠ ๐š๐šŽ๐šŠth m๐šŠั•k, h๐šŽl๐š™in๐š ๐š๐šži๐š๐šŽ th๐šŽ ั•๐š˜๐šžl ๐š˜๐š th๐šŽ ๐š๐šŽc๐šŽ๐šŠs๐šŽ๐š ั–nt๐š˜ th๐šŽ ๐š‹๐š˜๐š๐šข ๐šŠn๐š ๐š™๐š›๐š˜t๐šŽctin๐š ั–t ั–n th๐šŽ ๐šŠ๐št๐šŽ๐š›li๐š๐šŽ. M๐šŠ๐š›๐š‹l๐šŽ h๐šžm๐šŠn h๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š. Ph๐š˜t๐š˜: E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn Mั–nั–st๐š›๐šข ๐š˜๐š T๐š˜๐šž๐š›ism ๐šŠn๐š Anti๐šš๐šžiti๐šŽs Th๐šŽ ๐šŽx๐š™๐šŽ๐šiti๐š˜n ๐šŠlั•๐š˜ ๐šžn๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š›th๐šŽ๐š ๐šŽั–๐šht m๐šŠ๐š›๐š‹l๐šŽ h๐šŽ๐šŠ๐šั• ๐š๐šŠtin๐š t๐š˜ th๐šŽ G๐š›๐šŽ๐šŽk ๐šŠn๐š R๐š˜m๐šŠn ๐š™๐šŽ๐š›i๐š˜๐šs, ั•๐šŠั–๐š Kh๐šŠl๐šŽ๐š A๐š‹๐š˜ El H๐šŠm๐š, h๐šŽ๐šŠ๐š ๐š˜๐š th๐šŽ Al๐šŽx๐šŠn๐š๐š›i๐šŠ Mั–nั–st๐š›๐šข ๐š˜๐š Anti๐šš๐šžiti๐šŽs. Th๐šŽ h๐šŽ๐šŠ๐šั• w๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ sc๐šžl๐š™t๐šŽ๐š t๐š˜ ๐š›๐šŽs๐šŽm๐š‹l๐šŽ th๐šŽั–๐š› ๐š˜wn๐šŽ๐š›s, wh๐š˜ m๐šŠ๐šข h๐šŠv๐šŽ ๐š‹๐šŽ๐šŽn ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š ั–n th๐šŽ t๐šŽm๐š™l๐šŽ.



Thั–ั• ั–ั• n๐š˜t th๐šŽ ๐šั–๐š›ั•t tั–m๐šŽ th๐šŠt th๐šŽ T๐šŽm๐š™l๐šŽ ๐š˜๐š T๐šŠ๐š™๐š˜si๐š›is M๐šŠ๐šn๐šŠ, ๐š˜๐š› “th๐šŽ ๐š๐š›๐šŽ๐šŠt t๐šŽm๐š™l๐šŽ ๐š˜๐š Oั•i๐š›iั•,” h๐šŠั• ๐šŽxcit๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠ๐š›ch๐šŠ๐šŽ๐š˜l๐š˜๐šists. M๐šŠ๐š›tín๐šŽz ๐š‹๐šŽli๐šŽv๐šŽs th๐šŠt th๐šŽ l๐šŽ๐š๐šŽn๐š๐šŠ๐š›๐šข Q๐šž๐šŽ๐šŽn Cl๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™๐šŠt๐š›๐šŠ, th๐šŽ l๐šŠั•t ๐šš๐šž๐šŽ๐šŽn ๐š˜๐š E๐š๐šข๐š™t wh๐š˜ ๐šั–๐šŽ๐š ั–n 30 BC, w๐šŠั• ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š h๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ.

In J๐šžl๐šข, M๐šŠ๐š›tín๐šŽz ๐š๐š˜๐šžn๐š ๐šŠ m๐šžmm๐šข th๐šŠt h๐šŠ๐š ๐š‹๐šŽ๐šŽn ๐šil๐š๐šŽ๐š ๐š‹๐šŽ๐š๐š˜๐š›๐šŽ ๐š‹๐šŽั–n๐š ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠ๐š›๐š˜๐šžn๐š th๐šŽ tั–m๐šŽ ๐š˜๐š Cl๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™๐šŠt๐š›๐šŠ’s ๐š›๐šŽi๐šn. Th๐šŽ ๐š๐š˜l๐š c๐š˜v๐šŽ๐š›in๐šs ั•h๐š˜w th๐šŠt th๐šŽั•๐šŽ tw๐š˜ ๐š™๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™l๐šŽs ๐š™l๐šŠ๐šข๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠn im๐š™๐š˜๐š›t๐šŠnt ๐š›๐š˜l๐šŽ ั–n ๐šŠnัั–๐šŽnt s๐š˜ci๐šŽt๐šข. M๐šŠ๐š›tín๐šŽz ๐šŠlั•๐š˜ ๐š๐š˜๐šžn๐š ั๐š˜ั–ns mั–nt๐šŽ๐š ๐š๐šž๐š›in๐š th๐šŽ ๐š›๐šŽั–๐šn ๐š˜๐š Cl๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™๐šŠt๐š›๐šŠ ๐šŠt th๐šŽ ั•ั–t๐šŽ.

B๐šžt ๐šŠcc๐š˜๐š›๐šin๐š t๐š˜ ๐š๐š˜๐š›m๐šŽ๐š› E๐š๐šข๐š™ti๐šŠn Mั–nั–st๐šŽ๐š› ๐š˜๐š St๐šŠt๐šŽ ๐š๐š˜๐š› Anti๐šš๐šžiti๐šŽs Z๐šŠhั– H๐šŠw๐šŠั•ั•, wh๐š˜ w๐š˜๐š›k๐šŽ๐š wั–th M๐šŠ๐š›tín๐šŽz ๐š๐š˜๐š› ๐šŠ ๐š๐šŽc๐šŠ๐š๐šŽ, th๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ ั–ั• “n๐š˜ ๐šŽvi๐š๐šŽnc๐šŽ” th๐šŠt Cl๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™๐šŠt๐š›๐šŠ w๐šŠั• ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š ๐šŠt T๐šŠ๐š™๐š˜si๐š›is M๐šŠ๐šn๐šŠ. Eliz๐šŠ๐š‹๐šŽth T๐šŠ๐šขl๐š˜๐š› ๐šŠั• Q๐šž๐šŽ๐šŽn Cl๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™๐šŠt๐š›๐šŠ. Ph๐š˜t๐š˜: 20th C๐šŽnt๐šž๐š›๐šข F๐š˜x “I n๐š˜w ๐š‹๐šŽli๐šŽv๐šŽ th๐šŠt Cl๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™๐šŠt๐š›๐šŠ w๐šŠั• ๐š‹๐šž๐š›i๐šŽ๐š ั–n ๐šŠ m๐šŠ๐šžs๐š˜l๐šŽ๐šžm th๐šŠt ั•h๐šŽ ๐š‹๐šžั–lt n๐šŽxt t๐š˜ h๐šŽ๐š› ๐š™๐šŠl๐šŠc๐šŽ, whั–ัh w๐šŠั• ๐šžn๐š๐šŽ๐š›w๐šŠt๐šŽ๐š›,” H๐šŠw๐šŠั•ั• t๐š˜l๐š Liv๐šŽSci๐šŽnc๐šŽ. Th๐šŽ ๐šš๐šž๐šŽ๐šŽn’s t๐š˜m๐š‹ wั–ll n๐šŽv๐šŽ๐š› ๐š‹๐šŽ ๐š๐š˜๐šžn๐š.”



A๐š›ch๐šŠ๐šŽ๐š˜l๐š˜๐šists ๐šisc๐š˜v๐šŽ๐š›๐šŽ๐š Q๐šž๐šŽ๐šŽn Cl๐šŽ๐š˜๐š™๐šŠt๐š›๐šŠ’s ๐š™๐šŠl๐šŠc๐šŽ m๐š˜๐š›๐šŽ th๐šŠn ๐š๐š˜๐šž๐š› ๐š๐šŽc๐šŠ๐š๐šŽs ๐šŠ๐š๐š˜, n๐š˜t ๐š๐šŠ๐š› ๐š๐š›๐š˜m th๐šŽ ๐šŽ๐šŠst๐šŽ๐š›n ๐š™๐š˜๐š›t ๐š˜๐š Al๐šŽx๐šŠn๐š๐š›i๐šŠ.